Technology Roadmap of Micro/Nanorobots
ACS Nano, vol. 19, pp. 24174–24334
Abstract
, the field of micro/nanorobots has evolved from science fiction to reality, with significant advancements in biomedical and environmental applications. Despite the rapid progress, the deployment of functional micro/nanorobots remains limited. This review of the technology roadmap identifies key challenges hindering their widespread use, focusing on propulsion mechanisms, fundamental theoretical aspects, collective behavior, material design, and embodied intelligence. We explore the current state of micro/nanorobot technology, with an emphasis on applications in biomedicine, environmental remediation, analytical sensing, and other industrial technological aspects. Additionally, we analyze issues related to scaling up production, commercialization, and regulatory frameworks that are crucial for transitioning from research to practical applications. We also emphasize the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to address both technical and nontechnical challenges, such as sustainability, ethics, and business considerations. Finally, we propose a roadmap for future research to accelerate the development of micro/nanorobots, positioning them as essential tools for addressing grand challenges and enhancing the quality of life.
Authors 99
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Central European Institute of Technology · Brno University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 123, Brno 61200, Czech Republic
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University of California San Diego
Affiliation as printed
The Aiiso Yufeng Li Family Department of Chemical and Nano Engineering
University of California San Diego
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Central European Institute of Technology · Brno University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 123, Brno 61200, Czech Republic
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Multi-Scale Robotics Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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University of Oxford · Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization
Affiliation as printed
Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization (MPI-DS)
Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics
University of Oxford
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National University of Singapore
Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomedical Engineering
National University of Singapore
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute for Polymer Research, Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Harbin Institute of Technology · Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Affiliation as printed
HIT Zhengzhou Research Institute
Harbin Institute of Technology
Key Laboratory of Science and Engineering for the Multi-modal Prevention and Control of Major Chronic Diseases, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
School of Medicine and Health
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University of Catania · Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems
Affiliation as printed
CNR-IMM, via S. Sofia 64, Catania 95123, Italy
Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Ettore Majorana”, Università degli Studi di Catania, via S. Sofia 64, Catania 95123, Italy
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Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
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Central European Institute of Technology · Brno University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 123, Brno 61200, Czech Republic
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Multi-Scale Robotics Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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Chinese University of Hong Kong
Affiliation as printed
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
University of Waterloo
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Acoustic Robotics Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
ETH Zurich
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DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials · RWTH Aachen University
Affiliation as printed
DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Department of Physics, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Acoustic Robotics Systems Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
ETH Zurich
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Harbin Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)
School of Materials Science and Engineering
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Affiliation as printed
Systems Design and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Ikerbasque · CIC nanoGUNE · Center for Molecular Bioengineering
Affiliation as printed
CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, E-20018 Donostia − San Sebastian, Spain
Center for Molecular Bioengineering (B CUBE)
Chair of Micro- NanoSystems
Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and Physical Chemistry, Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
University of Barcelona
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Affiliation as printed
Mechanical Engineering Department
Virginia Tech
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Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University School of Biomedical Engineering & Sciences · Virginia Tech
Affiliation as printed
Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Biological Systems Engineering Department, Institute For Critical Technology and Applied Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
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Affiliation as printed
Chemical Physics Theory Group, Department of Chemistry
University of Toronto
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemistry
The University of Hong Kong
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State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry · University of Hong Kong
Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemistry
HKU-CAS Joint Laboratory on New Materials and Department of Chemistry
Materials Innovation Institute for Life Sciences and Energy (MILES)
State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry
The University of Hong Kong
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Affiliation as printed
College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering
Shenzhen University
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Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical Engineering
Technion − Israel Institute of Technology
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Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical Engineering
Technion − Israel Institute of Technology
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Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
DGIST-ETH Microrobotics Research Center, DGIST
Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST)
Department of Robotics and Mechatronics Engineering
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Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
DGIST-ETH Microrobotics Research Center, DGIST
Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST)
Department of Robotics and Mechatronics Engineering
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Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology · Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia
Affiliation as printed
Institute for Bioengineering of Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology
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Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology · Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia · Universitat de Barcelona
Affiliation as printed
Department of Condensed Matter Physics
Institute for Bioengineering of Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology
University of Barcelona
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Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats · Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology · Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia
Affiliation as printed
Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys, 23, Barcelona, 08010, Spain
Institute for Bioengineering of Catalunya (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology
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Yonsei University · Heidelberg University · Max Planck Institute for Medical Research · Institute for Basic Science
Affiliation as printed
Center for Nanomedicine
Department of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute
Institute for Basic Science (IBS)
Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering and Advanced Materials
Max Planck Institute for Medical Research
Universität Heidelberg
Yonsei University
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Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Affiliation as printed
Centre for Nano Science and Engineering
Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Science
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Affiliation as printed
Chemical Research Institute “Andres M. Del Río”, Universidad de Alcala, Alcala de Henares, E-28802 Madrid, Spain
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, and Chemical Engineering
Universidad de Alcala
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Affiliation as printed
Chemical Research Institute “Andres M. Del Río”, Universidad de Alcala, Alcala de Henares, E-28802 Madrid, Spain
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, and Chemical Engineering
Universidad de Alcala
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Institute of Science and Technology Austria
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA)
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Institute of Science and Technology Austria
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA)
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, United Kingdom
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Mechanical Engineering
George Mason University
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Affiliation as printed
Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
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Affiliation as printed
Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and Physical Chemistry
University of Barcelona
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Affiliation as printed
School of Mechanical Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of Tel-Aviv
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Affiliation as printed
Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física, Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional
Universitat de Barcelona
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Institut de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia de la Universitat de Barcelona · Universitat de Barcelona
Affiliation as printed
Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB)
Universitat de Barcelona
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Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats · Universitat de Barcelona
Affiliation as printed
Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys, 23, Barcelona, 08010, Spain
Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física, Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional
Universitat de Barcelona
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemistry
The Pennsylvania State University
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemistry
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Materials Research Institute
The Pennsylvania State University
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University of Colorado Boulder
Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
University of Colorado Boulder
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Harbin Institute of Technology · State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems · State Key Laboratory of Robotics
Affiliation as printed
Harbin Institute of Technology
Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing (Ministry of Education)
State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System
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Harbin Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)
Sauvage Laboratory for Smart Materials, School of Integrated Circuits
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Harbin Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)
Sauvage Laboratory for Smart Materials, School of Integrated Circuits
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Johns Hopkins University
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North Carolina State University
Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
North Carolina State University
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Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats · Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology · Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia
Affiliation as printed
Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA)Passeig Lluis Companys 23, Barcelona 08010, Spain
Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), Baldiri i Reixac 10-12, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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Institut Català de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia
Affiliation as printed
Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, E-08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Affiliation as printed
Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1BX, United Kingdom
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen · University of Twente
Affiliation as printed
Surgical Robotics Laboratory, Department of Biomaterials and Biomedical Technology, University of Groningen and University Medical Center, Groningen 9713, AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
Surgical Robotics Laboratory, Department of Biomechanical Engineering
University of Twente
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Harbin Institute of Technology · State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems · State Key Laboratory of Robotics
Affiliation as printed
Harbin Institute of Technology
Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing (Ministry of Education)
School of Medicine and Health
State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Dr., East Lansing Michigan, 48824, United States
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Université de Bordeaux · Institut des Sciences Moléculaires · Institut Polytechnique de Bordeaux
Affiliation as printed
University Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, ISM UMR 5255
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Biology, Biomimicry Research and Innovation Center (BRIC)
University of Akron
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Danish National Research Foundation · Technical University of Denmark
Affiliation as printed
The Danish National Research Foundation and Villum Foundation’s Center for Intelligent Drug Delivery and Sensing Using Microcontainers and Nanomechanics (IDUN), Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsted Plads, Kgs, Lyngby 2800, Denmark
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Affiliation as printed
Shanghai Clinical Research and Trial Center
ShanghaiTech University
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices
Wireless and Smart Bioelectronics Lab, School of Biomedical Engineering
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Affiliation as printed
Institute for Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems
University of Stuttgart
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Fudan University · State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics
Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics
Fudan University
Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Intelligent Optoelectronics and Perception, Institute of Optoelectronics, Fudan University
Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University
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National Medical Products Administration · Southern Medical University
Affiliation as printed
NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Southern Medical University
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Affiliation as printed
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Sun Yat-Sen University
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, 5 King’s College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
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École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
Affiliation as printed
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
Institute of Mechanical Engineering
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Affiliation as printed
Departments of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University
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University of Toronto · Dalian University of Technology · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Dalian University of Technology
Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Robotics Institute
University of Toronto
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Computer Science
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, 5 King’s College Road, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto
University of Toronto
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Michigan
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Institut Català d'Investigació Química · Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Av. Països Catalans, 16, Tarragona E-43007 Spain
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Texas Materials Institute · The University of Texas at Austin
Affiliation as printed
Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute
University of Texas at Austin
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Texas Materials Institute · The University of Texas at Austin
Affiliation as printed
Chandra Department of Electric and Computer Engineering
Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute
University of Texas at Austin
Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Affiliation as printed
Australian Centre for NanoMedicine
Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
School of Chemical Engineering
The University of New South Wales
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science
Duke University
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Affiliation as printed
Fudan University
International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems
Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Intelligent Optoelectronics and Perception, Institute of Optoelectronics, Fudan University
State Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Science and Technology
Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University
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California Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science
California Institute of Technology
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Affiliation as printed
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center
Shenzhen University
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Fudan University · State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics
Affiliation as printed
Department of Materials Science and International Institute of Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems, State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics
Fudan University
Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Intelligent Optoelectronics and Perception, Institute of Optoelectronics, Fudan University
Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University
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China University of Mining and Technology
Affiliation as printed
China University of Mining and Technology
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology
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California Institute of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science
California Institute of Technology
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Chemnitz University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Chemnitz University of Technology
Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN)
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Fudan University · Chemnitz University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Chemnitz University of Technology
International Institute for Intelligent Nanorobots and Nanosystems (IIINN), Fudan University
Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN)
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Wuhan University of Technology · State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology For Materials Synthesis and Processing
Affiliation as printed
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, International School of Materials Science and Engineering
Wuhan University of Technology
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Wuhan University of Technology · State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology For Materials Synthesis and Processing
Affiliation as printed
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, International School of Materials Science and Engineering
Wuhan University of Technology
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Koç University · Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Koç University
Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, Stuttgart 70569, Germany
School of Medicine and College of Engineering
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Multi-Scale Robotics Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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ETH Zurich · Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems
Affiliation as printed
Multi-Scale Robotics Lab, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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Chinese University of Hong Kong
Affiliation as printed
Chow Yuk Ho Technology Centre for Innovative Medicine
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, 999077, China
Department of Surgery
Multi-Scale Medical Robotics Center, Hong Kong Science Park
T Stone Robotics Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute for Polymer Research, Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Harbin Institute of Technology · Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Affiliation as printed
HIT Zhengzhou Research Institute
Harbin Institute of Technology
Key Laboratory of Science and Engineering for the Multi-modal Prevention and Control of Major Chronic Diseases, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
School of Medicine and Health
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