fNIRS reproducibility varies with data quality, analysis pipelines, and researcher experience
Communications Biology, vol. 8, pp. 1149
Abstract
As data analysis pipelines grow more complex in brain imaging research, understanding how methodological choices affect results is essential for ensuring reproducibility and transparency. This is especially relevant for functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), a rapidly growing technique for assessing brain function in naturalistic settings and across the lifespan, yet one that still lacks standardized analysis approaches. In the fNIRS Reproducibility Study Hub (FRESH) initiative, we asked 38 research teams worldwide to independently analyze the same two fNIRS datasets. Despite using different pipelines, nearly 80% of teams agreed on group-level results, particularly when hypotheses were strongly supported by literature. Teams with higher self-reported analysis confidence, which correlated with years of fNIRS experience, showed greater agreement. At the individual level, agreement was lower but improved with better data quality. The main sources of variability were related to how poor-quality data were handled, how responses were modeled, and how statistical analyses were conducted. These findings suggest that while flexible analytical tools are valuable, clearer methodological and reporting standards could greatly enhance reproducibility. By identifying key drivers of variability, this study highlights current challenges and offers direction for improving transparency and reliability in fNIRS research.
Authors 99
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Affiliation as printed
Boston University, Neurophotonics Center, Boston, MA, USA. mayucel@bu.edu
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA. mayucel@bu.edu
Boston University, Neurophotonics Center, Boston, MA, USA
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
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Rickson C. Mesquita corresponding
Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) · University of Birmingham
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Physics, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. r.c.mesquita@bham.ac.uk
School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK. r.c.mesquita@bham.ac.uk
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Alexander von Lühmann corresponding
Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data · Technische Universität Berlin
Affiliation as printed
BIFOLD - Berlin Institute for Foundations of Learning and Data, Berlin, Germany. vonluehmann@tu-berlin.de
Intelligent Biomedical Sensing (IBS) Lab, Machine Learning Department, TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany. vonluehmann@tu-berlin.de
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David M. A. Mehler Aachen Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics Medical School
University of Münster · Cardiff University · RWTH Aachen University
Affiliation as printed
Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab, Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical School, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Institute of Translational Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
School of Psychology, Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Center (CUBRIC), Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
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Affiliation as printed
Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON, Canada
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Karolinska University Hospital · Karolinska Institutet
Affiliation as printed
Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Karolinska University Hospital, Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy, Stockholm, Sweden
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Neuroscience, American University, Washington, WA, USA
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John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
Affiliation as printed
Department of Experimental Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
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Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies du numérique · Inserm · Institut de Recherche en Informatique et Systèmes Aléatoires · Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rennes · Empenn · Université de Rennes
Affiliation as printed
CHU Rennes, Radiology Department, Rennes, France
Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, Empenn, Rennes, France
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), partner site, Tübingen, Germany
LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Neuroscience, American University, Washington, WA, USA
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Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data · Technische Universität Berlin
Affiliation as printed
BIFOLD - Berlin Institute for Foundations of Learning and Data, Berlin, Germany
Intelligent Biomedical Sensing (IBS) Lab, Machine Learning Department, TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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HTW Berlin - University of Applied Sciences
Affiliation as printed
BEARLabs, Faculty 1, University of Applied Sciences (HTW) Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Liverpool John Moores University
Affiliation as printed
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, England
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University of Nebraska at Omaha · University of Kansas Medical Center
Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, USA
Department of Occupational Therapy Education, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
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University of Nebraska at Omaha
Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, USA
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University of London · Birkbeck, University of London
Affiliation as printed
Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies du numérique · Inserm · Institut de Recherche en Informatique et Systèmes Aléatoires · Empenn · Université de Rennes
Affiliation as printed
Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, Empenn, Rennes, France
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National Chung Cheng University
Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung, Chiayi, Taiwan
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University of Nebraska at Omaha
Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, USA
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies du numérique · Inserm · Institut de Recherche en Informatique et Systèmes Aléatoires · Empenn · Université de Rennes
Affiliation as printed
Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, Empenn, Rennes, France
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
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Boston Children's Hospital · Harvard University
Affiliation as printed
Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), partner site, Tübingen, Germany
LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), partner site, Tübingen, Germany
LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Neuroscience, American University, Washington, WA, USA
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Karolinska University Hospital · Karolinska Institutet
Affiliation as printed
Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Karolinska University Hospital, Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy, Stockholm, Sweden
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Jülich Aachen Research Alliance · RWTH Aachen University
Affiliation as printed
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
JARA-Brain Institute II, Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, RWTH Aachen & Research Centre Juelich, Aachen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
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Affiliation as printed
The Translational Neurorehabilitation Lab at Adi Negev Nahalat Eran, Ofakim, Israel
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University of London · Birkbeck, University of London
Affiliation as printed
Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Université de Lille · Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives · UCLouvain
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, University of Lille, CNRS, Lille, France
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Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí
Affiliation as printed
CIACYT, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Computational Brain Research and Intervention (C-BRAIN) Lab, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Technical University of Denmark
Affiliation as printed
Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
School of Psychological Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies du numérique · Inserm · Institut de Recherche en Informatique et Systèmes Aléatoires · Empenn · Université de Rennes
Affiliation as printed
Univ Rennes, Inria, CNRS, Inserm, IRISA UMR 6074, Empenn, Rennes, France
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National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
Affiliation as printed
Human Informatics and Interaction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
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Boston Children's Hospital · Harvard University
Affiliation as printed
Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences
Affiliation as printed
Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
School of Psychological Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Franziska Klein Aachen Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics Medical School
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg · Oldenburger Institut für Informatik · RWTH Aachen University
Affiliation as printed
Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab, Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical School, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Biomedical Devices and Systems Group, R&D Division Health, OFFIS Institute for Information Technology, Oldenburg, Germany
Neurocognition and functional Neurorehabilitation Group, Department of Psychology, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
School of Psychological Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Affiliation as printed
Department of Physical Therapy, Ben-Gurion University, Beersheba, Israel
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Division of Physiotherapy, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Department of Physics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Experimental Psychology Unit, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Health and Rehabilitation Sciences Program, Faculty of Health Science, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Affiliation as printed
Human Hearing, The Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP)
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Physics, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data · Technische Universität Berlin
Affiliation as printed
BIFOLD - Berlin Institute for Foundations of Learning and Data, Berlin, Germany
Intelligent Biomedical Sensing (IBS) Lab, Machine Learning Department, TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Boston University, Neurophotonics Center, Boston, MA, USA
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
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Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg
Affiliation as printed
Institute of Biology, Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Affiliation as printed
Human Hearing, The Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Affiliation as printed
Industrial engineering and management, Ben-Gurion university, Beersheba, Israel
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders and Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Price Faculty of Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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Affiliation as printed
Human Hearing, The Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Maastricht University · University of Coimbra
Affiliation as printed
Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Institute for Nuclear Sciences Applied to Health - University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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University of London · Birkbeck, University of London
Affiliation as printed
Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Engineering Technology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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University of California, Merced · Stanford University
Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Computational Brain Research and Intervention (C-BRAIN) Lab, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Department of Psychology, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA, USA
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Nanyang Technological University · RWTH Aachen University
Affiliation as printed
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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Wiebke Ringels Aachen Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics Medical School
Affiliation as printed
Applied Computational Neuroscience (ACN) lab, Department for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical School, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Medizinische Hochschule Hannover
Affiliation as printed
Department of Experimental Otology of the Clinics of Otolaryngology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
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Heidelberg University · University Hospital Heidelberg · Universitätsmedizin Göttingen · University of Göttingen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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Technical University of Denmark
Affiliation as printed
Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Eriksholm Research Centre, Snekkersten, Denmark
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Purdue University West Lafayette
Affiliation as printed
Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Affiliation as printed
School of Psychological Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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University of California, San Francisco · Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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University of Johannesburg · University of Surrey
Affiliation as printed
Department of Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Washington University in St. Louis
Affiliation as printed
Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, WA, USA
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Affiliation as printed
Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON, Canada
BrainsCAN, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Chemnitz University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Chemnitz University of Technology, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Department of Human Movement Science and Health, Chemnitz, Germany
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Affiliation as printed
Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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Chungnam National University · Korea Basic Science Institute
Affiliation as printed
Center for Bio-Imaging and Translational Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
Graduate School of Analytical Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Affiliation as printed
Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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