Euclid preparation

Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 675, pp. A142

Abstract

Material outgassing in a vacuum leads to molecular contamination, a well-known problem in spaceflight. Water is the most common contaminant in cryogenic spacecraft, altering numerous properties of optical systems. Too much ice means that Euclid’s calibration requirements cannot be met anymore. Euclid must then be thermally decontaminated, which is a month-long risky operation. We need to understand how ice affects our data to build adequate calibration and survey plans. A comprehensive analysis in the context of an astrophysical space survey has not been done before. In this paper we look at other spacecraft with well-documented outgassing records. We then review the formation of thin ice films, and find that for Euclid a mix of amorphous and crystalline ices is expected. Their surface topography – and thus optical properties – depend on the competing energetic needs of the substrate-water and the water-water interfaces, and they are hard to predict with current theories. We illustrate that with scanning-tunnelling and atomic-force microscope images of thin ice films. Sophisticated tools exist to compute contamination rates, and we must understand their underlying physical principles and uncertainties. We find considerable knowledge errors on the diffusion and sublimation coefficients, limiting the accuracy of outgassing estimates. We developed a water transport model to compute contamination rates in Euclid, and find agreement with industry estimates within the uncertainties. Tests of the Euclid flight hardware in space simulators did not pick up significant contamination signals, but they were also not geared towards this purpose; our in-flight calibration observations will be much more sensitive. To derive a calibration and decontamination strategy, we need to understand the link between the amount of ice in the optics and its effect on the data. There is little research about this, possibly because other spacecraft can decontaminate more easily, quenching the need for a deeper understanding. In our second paper, we quantify the impact of iced optics on Euclid’s data.

Authors 98

1. M. Schirmer

   University of Zurich

   Affiliation as printed

   University of Zurich University

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

2. Konrad Thürmer

   University of Zurich

   Affiliation as printed

   University of Zurich University

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

3. Mark S. Cropper

   University of Zurich

   Affiliation as printed

   University of Zurich University

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

4. J Martín-Fleitas
   Affiliation as printed

   Aurora Technology B.V. , Zwarteweg 39 , 2201 AA Noordwijk , The Netherlands

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

5. Yann Goueffon

   Airbus (France)

   Affiliation as printed

   Airbus Defence & Space SAS , Toulouse , France

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

6. R. Kohley

   European Space Astronomy Centre

   Affiliation as printed

   ESAC/ESA , Camino Bajo del Castillo , s/n , Urb. Villafranca del Castillo , 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada , Madrid , Spain

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

7. A. Mora

   European Space Agency

   Affiliation as printed

   Aurora Technology for European Space Agency (ESA) , Camino bajo del Castillo , s/n , Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo , Villanueva de la Cañada , 28692 Madrid , Spain

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

8. M. Portaluppi
   Affiliation as printed

   St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

9. Giuseppe D. Racca
   Affiliation as printed

   St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

   . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

10. Alexander D. T. Short

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

11. Szilvia Szmolka

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

12. Luis M. Gaspar Venancio

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

13. M. Altmann

    Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Heidelberg University · Université Paris Sciences et Lettres · Observatoire de Paris · Sorbonne Université · Systèmes de Référence Temps-Espace · Laboratoire Temps Espace

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    SYRTE , Observatoire de Paris , Université PSL , CNRS , Sorbonne Université , LNE , 61 avenue de l'Observatoire 75014 Paris , France

    SYRTE - Systèmes de Référence Temps Espace (61 Av de l'Observatoire 75014 PARIS - France)

14. Z. Balog

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

15. U. Bastian

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

16. M. Biermann

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

17. D. Busonero

    Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino , Via Osservatorio 20 , 10025 Pino Torinese (TO) , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

18. C. Fabricius

    Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya · Institut de Ciències del Cosmos · Universitat de Barcelona

    Affiliation as printed

    Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC) , Carrer Gran Capitá 2-4 , 08034 Barcelona , Spain

    Institut de Ciències del Cosmos (ICCUB) , Universitat de Barcelona (IEEC-UB) , Martí i Franquès 1 , 08028 Barcelona , Spain

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

19. Frank U. Grupp

    Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics · Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München

    Affiliation as printed

    Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics , Giessenbachstr. 1 , 85748 Garching , Germany

    University Observatory , Faculty of Physics , Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität , Scheinerstr. 1 , 81679 Munich , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

20. C. Jordi
    Affiliation as printed

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

21. W. Löffler

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

22. A. Sagristà Sellés

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Astronomisches Rechen-Institut , Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg , Mönchhofstr. 12-14 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

23. N. Aghanim

    Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · Université Paris-Saclay · Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale

    Affiliation as printed

    Université Paris-Saclay , CNRS , Institut d'astrophysique spatiale , 91405 Orsay , France

    IAS - Institut d'astrophysique spatiale (Bâtiment 121 91405 ORSAY CEDEX - France)

24. Adam Amara

    University of Portsmouth

    Affiliation as printed

    Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation , University of Portsmouth , Portsmouth PO1 3FX , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

25. Luca Amendola

    Heidelberg University

    Affiliation as printed

    Institut für Theoretische Physik , University of Heidelberg , Philosophenweg 16 , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

26. Marco Baldi
    Affiliation as printed

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

27. Christof T. Bodendorf

    Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics

    Affiliation as printed

    Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics , Giessenbachstr. 1 , 85748 Garching , Germany

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

28. D. Bonino

    Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino · National Institute for Astrophysics

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    INAF -Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino , Via Osservatorio 20 , 10025 Pino Torinese (TO) , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

29. E. Branchini

    Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Genova · University of Genoa

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    Dipartimento di Fisica , Universitá di Genova , Via Dodecaneso 33 , 16146 Genova , Italy

    INFN -Sezione di Genova , Via Dodecaneso 33 , 16146 Genova , Italy

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30. M. Brescia

    Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte · University of Naples Federico II · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    Department of Physics "E. Pancini" , University Federico II , Via Cinthia 6 , 80126 , Napoli , Italy

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte , Via Moiariello 16 , 80131 Napoli , Italy

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy

31. J. Brinchmann

    Universidade do Porto · Institute of Astrophysics and Space Sciences · Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto

    Affiliation as printed

    Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço , Universidade do Porto , CAUP , Rua das Estrelas , PT4150-762 Porto , Portugal

    CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal

    Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto,

32. S. Camera

    Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Torino · University of Turin

    Affiliation as printed

    Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy

    INFN -Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy

33. Gian Paolo Candini

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

34. V. Capobianco

    Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino , Via Osservatorio 20 , 10025 Pino Torinese (TO) , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

35. C. Carbone

    National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -IASF Milano , Via Alfonso Corti 12 , 20133 Milano , Italy

    INAF -IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy

36. J. Carretero

    Institute for High Energy Physics · Astronomical Observatory of Rome · Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Napoli · Port d'Informació Científica · National Institute for Astrophysics · University of Bologna

    Affiliation as printed

    Institut de Física d'Altes Energies (IFAE) , The Barcelona Insti- tute of Science and Technology , Campus UAB , 08193 Bellaterra ( Barcelona) , Spain

    Port d'Informació Científica , Campus UAB , C . Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain 33 INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy 34 INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy 35 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" -Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy 36 Centre National d'Études Spatiales -Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Édouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France 37

    Institut de Física d'Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Insti-tute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain

    Port d'Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain

37. M. Castellano

    Astronomical Observatory of Rome · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy

38. S. Cavuoti

    Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte · Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Napoli · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte , Via Moiariello 16 , 80131 Napoli , Italy

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy

    INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy

39. A. Cimatti

    University of Zurich · University of Bologna

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi" -Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy

40. R. Clédassou

    Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique · University of Zurich · Centre National d'Études Spatiales · Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    CNES - Centre National d'Études Spatiales [Toulouse] (18 avenue Edouard Belin 31401 Toulouse - France)

    IN2P3 - Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules du CNRS (CENTRE NATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE 3 rue Michel-Ange 75794 PARIS CEDEX 16 - France - France)

41. G. Congedo

    University of Zurich · Royal Observatory · University of Edinburgh

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observa-tory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK

42. Christopher J. Conselice

    University of Manchester

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK

43. L. Conversi

    European Space Agency · European Space Astronomy Centre · European Space Research Institute

    Affiliation as printed

    ESAC/ESA , Camino Bajo del Castillo , s/n , Urb. Villafranca del Castillo , 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada , Madrid , Spain

    European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy

44. Y. Copin

    Institut de Physique des 2 Infinis de Lyon

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    IP2I Lyon - Institut de Physique des 2 Infinis de Lyon (Campus LyonTech-la Doua Bâtiment Paul DIRAC 4 Rue Enrico Fermi 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex - France)

45. L. Corcione

    Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino , Via Osservatorio 20 , 10025 Pino Torinese (TO) , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

46. F. Courbin

    University of Zurich · École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytech-nique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland

47. A. Da Silva

    University of Lisbon · University of Zurich · Institute of Astrophysics and Space Sciences

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal

    Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciên-cias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal

48. Hubert Degaudenzi

    University of Geneva · University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland

49. A.M Di Giorgio

    Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetology · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    INAF -Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy

50. J. Dinis

    University of Lisbon · Institute of Astrophysics and Space Sciences

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal

    Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciên-cias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal

51. F. Dubath

    University of Geneva

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland

52. X. Dupac

    European Space Astronomy Centre

    Affiliation as printed

    ESAC/ESA , Camino Bajo del Castillo , s/n , Urb. Villafranca del Castillo , 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada , Madrid , Spain

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

53. S. Dusini

    University of Zurich · Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Padova

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    INFN -Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy

54. S. Farrens

    University of Zurich · Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives · CEA Paris-Saclay - Etablissement de Saclay · Astrophysique, Instrumentation et Modélisation · CEA Paris-Saclay

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    AIM (UMR7158 / UMR_E_9005 / UM_112) - Astrophysique Interprétation Modélisation (AIM - UMR 7158 - UMR E 9005, ex 'Astrophysique Interactions Multi-échelles', Service d'astrophysique, CEA/Saclay, Orme des Merisiers F-91191 GIF SUR YVETTE CEDEX - France)

55. S. Ferriol

    University of Zurich · Institut de Physique des 2 Infinis de Lyon

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    IP2I Lyon - Institut de Physique des 2 Infinis de Lyon (Campus LyonTech-la Doua Bâtiment Paul DIRAC 4 Rue Enrico Fermi 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex - France)

56. M. Frailis

    University of Zurich · Trieste Astronomical Observatory

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy

57. Enrico Franceschi

    Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

58. M. Fumana

    National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -IASF Milano , Via Alfonso Corti 12 , 20133 Milano , Italy

    INAF -IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy

59. Samuele Galeotta

    Trieste Astronomical Observatory

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy

60. B. Garilli

    National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -IASF Milano , Via Alfonso Corti 12 , 20133 Milano , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

61. William Gillard

    University of Zurich · Centre de physique des particules de Marseille

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    CPPM - Centre de Physique des Particules de Marseille (163, avenue de Luminy - Case 902 - 13288 Marseille cedex 09 - France)

62. Bryan R. Gillis

    University of Zurich · Royal Observatory · University of Edinburgh

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observa-tory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK

63. C. Giocoli

    Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Bologna · Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    INFN -Sezione di Bologna , Viale Berti Pichat 6/2 , 40127 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

64. S. V. H. Haugan

    University of Oslo · University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

    Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, PO Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway

65. Henk Hoekstra Aachen Leiden Observatory

    Leiden University · Leiden Observatory

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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands

66. W. A. Holmes
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

67. F. Hormuth
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

68. Allan Hornstrup
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

69. K. Jahnkę

    University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

70. Smaïn Kermiche

    University of Zurich · Centre de physique des particules de Marseille

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    University of Zurich University

    CPPM - Centre de Physique des Particules de Marseille (163, avenue de Luminy - Case 902 - 13288 Marseille cedex 09 - France)

71. A. Kiessling

    University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

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72. M. Kilbinger

    University of Zurich · Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives · CEA Paris-Saclay - Etablissement de Saclay · Astrophysique, Instrumentation et Modélisation · CEA Paris-Saclay

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    University of Zurich University

    AIM (UMR7158 / UMR_E_9005 / UM_112) - Astrophysique Interprétation Modélisation (AIM - UMR 7158 - UMR E 9005, ex 'Astrophysique Interactions Multi-échelles', Service d'astrophysique, CEA/Saclay, Orme des Merisiers F-91191 GIF SUR YVETTE CEDEX - France)

73. T. Kitching
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

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74. Martin Kunz
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

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75. Hannu Kurki-Suonio
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

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76. S. Ligori

    Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino · National Institute for Astrophysics

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    INAF -Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino , Via Osservatorio 20 , 10025 Pino Torinese (TO) , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

77. Per Barth Lilje

    University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

78. Ivan Lloro

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

79. E. Maiorano

    Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics

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    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

80. O. Mansutti

    University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

81. O. Marggraf
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

82. Katarina Markovic
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    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

83. F. Marulli
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    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

84. R. Massey

    University of Zurich

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    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

85. Eduardo Medinaceli

    Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics

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    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

86. S. Mei

    University of Zurich · Université Paris Diderot

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    University of Zurich University

    APC (UMR_7164) - AstroParticule et Cosmologie (APC - UMR 7164, Université Paris Diderot, 10 rue Alice Domon et Léonie Duquet, case postale 7020, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13 - France)

87. Y. Mellier

    University of Zurich · Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives · CEA Paris-Saclay - Etablissement de Saclay · Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris · Direction de la Recherche Fondamentale · CEA Paris-Saclay · Institut de Recherche sur les Lois Fondamentales de l'Univers

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    DAP - Département d'Astrophysique (ex SAP) (Service d'Astrophysique, CEA-Saclay, DRF/IRFU/SAp, Bât. 709, L'Orme des Merisiers, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France - France)

    IAP - Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris (98bis, bd Arago - 75014 Paris France - France)

88. Massimo Meneghetti

    Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Bologna · Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    INFN -Sezione di Bologna , Viale Berti Pichat 6/2 , 40127 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

89. E. Merlin

    Astronomical Observatory of Rome · National Institute for Astrophysics

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    INAF -Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy

90. G. Meylan

    École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytech-nique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland

91. M. Moresco

    Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio · National Institute for Astrophysics · University of Bologna

    Affiliation as printed

    Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia "Augusto Righi " -Alma Mater Studiorum Universitá di Bologna , via Piero Gobetti 93/2 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    INAF -Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna , Via Piero Gobetti 93/3 , 40129 Bologna , Italy

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

92. Lauro Moscardini
    Affiliation as printed

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

93. Emiliano Munari

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

94. R. Nakajima

    University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

95. S.-M Niemi
    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

96. James W Nightingale
    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

97. Teake A Nutma
    Affiliation as printed

    St Mary , Dorking , Surrey RH5 6NT , UK

    . 4 of 34 Cinthia 6, 80126, Napoli, Italy

98. S. Paltani

    University of Geneva · University of Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    University of Zurich University

    Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d'Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland