Stochastic neighbor embedding as a tool for visualizing the encoding capability of magnetic resonance fingerprinting dictionaries

Magnetic Resonance Materials in Physics Biology and Medicine, vol. 35, pp. 223–234

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To visualize the encoding capability of magnetic resonance fingerprinting (MRF) dictionaries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: High-dimensional MRF dictionaries were simulated and embedded into a lower-dimensional space using t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE). The embeddings were visualized via colors as a surrogate for location in low-dimensional space. First, we illustrate this technique on three different MRF sequences. We then compare the resulting embeddings and the color-coded dictionary maps to these obtained with a singular value decomposition (SVD) dimensionality reduction technique. We validate the t-SNE approach with measures based on existing quantitative measures of encoding capability using the Euclidean distance. Finally, we use t-SNE to visualize MRF sequences resulting from an MRF sequence optimization algorithm. RESULTS: t-SNE was able to show clear differences between the color-coded dictionary maps of three MRF sequences. SVD showed smaller differences between different sequences. These findings were confirmed by quantitative measures of encoding. t-SNE was also able to visualize differences in encoding capability between subsequent iterations of an MRF sequence optimization algorithm. DISCUSSION: This visualization approach enables comparison of the encoding capability of different MRF sequences. This technique can be used as a confirmation tool in MRF sequence optimization.

Authors 4

1. Kirsten Koolstra corresponding Aachen Division of Image Processing (LKEB) Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center

   Leiden University Medical Center

   Affiliation as printed

   Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands. K.Koolstra@lumc.nl

   Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands

2. Peter Börnert Aachen C.J. Gorter Center for High Field MRI Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center

   Leiden University Medical Center · Philips (Germany)

   Affiliation as printed

   C. J. Gorter Center for High Field MRI, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands

   Philips Research Hamburg, Röntgenstrasse 24, 22335, Hamburg, Germany

3. Boudewijn P. F. Lelieveldt Aachen Division of Image Processing (LKEB) Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center

   Leiden University Medical Center · Delft University of Technology

   Affiliation as printed

   Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands

   Intelligent Systems Department, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD, Delft, The Netherlands

4. Oleh Dzyubachyk Aachen Division of Image Processing (LKEB) Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center Electron Microscopy Facility Department of Cell and Chemical Biology

   Leiden University Medical Center

   Affiliation as printed

   Division of Image Processing, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands

   Electron Microscopy Facility, Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands