A process-oriented perspective on multi-K 3D concrete printing

Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 209, pp. 108371

Abstract

Multi-component (multi-K) strategies in 3D concrete printing (3DCP) introduce additional streams to control material behavior, yet their underlying process principles remain poorly understood. This paper presents a process-oriented perspective on multi-K 3DCP. The evolution of multi-K processes is first reviewed in terms of the injection strategy and system configuration. Building on these developments, a conceptual framework for multi-K systems is proposed, in which K is interpreted as an independently controllable material input stream (K-stream) defined by its functional role and temporal-spatial deployment during printing. Based on this framework, K-streams are classified according to rheology regulation, mechanical performance enhancement, density grading and local composition tailoring, architectural and aesthetic design, and emerging functional targets. The analysis further highlights recurring challenges related to system layout and hardware constraints, inline mixing and flow-induced material heterogeneity, physicochemical interactions between streams, process monitoring, and closed-loop control. Finally, future perspectives toward robust, scalable, and functionally controlled multi-K 3DCP are discussed.

Authors 13

1. Yaxin Tao

   Tongji University

   Affiliation as printed

   College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

2. Minghan Li

   Tongji University

   Affiliation as printed

   College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

3. Kees Leemeijer
   Affiliation as printed

   Vertico, Eindhoven, the Netherlands

4. Shravan Muthukrishnan Aachen Cluster of Excellence CARE

   Climate-Neutral and Resource-Efficient Construction · Technische Universität Dresden · RWTH Aachen University

   Affiliation as printed

   Cluster of Excellence CARE, TU Dresden and RWTH, Aachen, Germany

   Institute of Construction Materials, TUD Dresden University of Technology, 01069, Dresden, Germany

5. Nan Zhang

   Swinburne University of Technology

   Affiliation as printed

   Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure and Digital Construction, School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia

6. A.V. Rahul

   Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati

   Affiliation as printed

   Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati, Tirupati, India

7. Nicolas Ducoulombier
   Affiliation as printed

   XtreeE, Paris, France

8. Arjen Deetman

   Eindhoven University of Technology

   Affiliation as printed

   Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands

9. Rob J. M. Wolfs

   Eindhoven University of Technology

   Affiliation as printed

   Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands

10. Yu Chen

    Southeast University

    Affiliation as printed

    School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

11. Yong Yuan

    Tongji University

    Affiliation as printed

    College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

12. Kai Wu corresponding

    Tongji University

    Affiliation as printed

    School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

13. Timothy Wangler corresponding

    ETH Zurich

    Affiliation as printed

    Physical Chemistry of Building Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland