Validity of Eye-Tracking Measures in Immersive Virtual Reality: Using Cognitive Theories of Learning

Educational Psychology Review, vol. 38

Abstract

Abstract Eye tracking is a promising research tool for investigating learning processes in immersive virtual reality (IVR). Grounded in cognitive theories of learning, this study proposes a classification of six key learning processes (i.e., cognitive, motivational, affective, social, metacognitive, media-specific) and nine associated constructs (i.e., attention, visual strategy, cognitive load, motivation, emotion, social attention, self-regulation, immersion, usability) measurable through eye tracking in IVR. Using this classification, a systematic review of 38 empirical studies published over a 10-year period (2014 − 2024) was conducted to evaluate the validity of eye-tracking measures. The results showed that the overall validity remains limited with an average score of 48% (± 19%), mainly due to insufficient control of data quality. Measures of cognitive load demonstrated relatively higher validity, likely due to their stronger alignment with performance outcomes. Methodological limitations, such as small sample sizes and dependence on default equipment configurations, were prevalent. To improve validity, future study should strengthen methodological foundations, provide detailed documentation of experimental setups, and use triangulation with complementary data. The classification and validity scoring schemes presented in this study contribute to the theory-driven application of eye tracking in IVR, and offer guidance for improving measurement validity in educational psychology.

Authors 7

1. Joy Yeonjoo Lee corresponding Aachen Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs

   Leiden University

   Affiliation as printed

   Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs, Leiden University, The Hague, the Netherlands

2. Jewoong Moon

   University of Alabama

   Affiliation as printed

   Department of Educational Leadership, Policy, and Technology Studies, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

3. FRED G. W. C. PAAS

   UNSW Sydney · Erasmus University Rotterdam

   Affiliation as printed

   Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

   School of Education, UNSW, Sydney, Australia

4. Minjung Cho Aachen Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs

   Leiden University

   Affiliation as printed

   Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs, Leiden University, The Hague, the Netherlands

5. Ali Darejeh

   UNSW Sydney

   Affiliation as printed

   School of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, Australia

6. Sonja Holmer

   Lund University

   Affiliation as printed

   Cognitive Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

7. Paul Ayres

   UNSW Sydney

   Affiliation as printed

   School of Education, UNSW, Sydney, Australia