Simplifying coronary artery disease risk stratification: development and validation of a questionnaire-based alternative comparable to clinical risk tools
EBioMedicine, vol. 111, pp. 105518
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Coronary artery disease (CAD) comprises one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality both in the European population and globally. All established clinical risk stratification scores and models require blood lipids and physical measurements. The latest reports of the European Commission suggest that attracting health professionals to collect these data can be challenging, both from a logistic and cost perspective, which limits the usefulness of established models and makes them unsuitable for population-wide screening in resource-limited settings, i.e., rural areas. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop and externally validate a questionnaire-based risk stratification model on a population scale at minimal cost, i.e., the Questionnaire-Based Evaluation for Estimating Coronary Artery Disease (QUES-CAD) to stratify the 10-year incidence of coronary artery disease. METHODS: Cox proportional hazards (CoxPH) and Cox gradient boosting (CoxGBT) models were trained with 10-fold cross-validation using combinations of ten questionnaire variables on the White population of the UK Biobank (n = 448,818) and internally validated the models in all ethnic minorities (n = 27,433). The Lifelines cohort was employed as an independent external validation population (n = 97,770). Additionally, we compared QUES-CAD's performance, containing only questionnaire variables, to clinically established risk prediction tools, i.e., Framingham Coronary Heart Disease Risk Score, American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association pooled cohort equation, World Health Organization cardiovascular disease risk charts, and Systematic Coronary Risk Estimation 2 (SCORE2). We conducted partial log-likelihood ratio (PLR) tests and C-index comparisons between QUES-CAD and established clinical prediction models. FINDINGS: In the external validation set, QUES-CAD exhibited C-index values of CoxPH: 0.692 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.673-0.71) and CoxGBT: 0.699 (95% CI: 0.681-0.717) for the male population and CoxPH: 0.771 (95% CI: 0.748-0.794) and CoxGBT: 0.759 (95% CI: 0.736-0.783) for the female population. The addition of measurement-based variables and variables that require a prior medical examination (i.e., insulin use, number of treatments/medications taken, prevalent cardiovascular disease [other than CAD, and stroke diagnosed by a doctor]) and the further addition of biomarkers/other measurements (i.e., high-density lipoprotein [HDL] cholesterol, total cholesterol, and glycated haemoglobin) did not significantly improve QUES-CAD's performance in most instances. C-index comparisons and PLR tests showed that QUES-CAD performs and fits the data at least as well as the clinical prediction models. INTERPRETATION: QUES-CAD performs comparably to established clinical prediction models and enables a population-wide identification of high-risk individuals for CAD. The model developed and validated herein relies solely on ten questionnaire variables, overcoming the limitations of existing models that depend on physical measurements or biomarkers. FUNDING: University Medical Center Groningen.
Authors 14
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Michail Kokkorakis corresponding
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center · University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. Electronic address: m.kokkorakis@umcg.nl
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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University of Pennsylvania · University of Bologna
Affiliation as printed
Center for Biomedical Image Computing and Analytics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Preventive Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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Affiliation as printed
Heart, Vascular and Thoracic Institute, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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Affiliation as printed
Heart, Vascular and Thoracic Institute, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Leiden University Medical Center
Affiliation as printed
Department of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Leiden University Medical Center
Affiliation as printed
Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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Douwe E. Atsma Aachen
Leiden University Medical Center · Delft University of Technology
Affiliation as printed
Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands; National eHealth Living Lab, Leiden, Netherlands; Department of Design, Organization and Strategy, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center · Harvard University · VA Boston Healthcare System
Affiliation as printed
Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Boston VA Healthcare System, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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University Medical Center Groningen · University of Groningen
Affiliation as printed
Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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