Risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection: A test-negative case-control study with additional population controls
Abstract
ABSTRACT Objectives To assess risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection by first comparing positive cases with negative controls as determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and then comparing these two groups with an additional population control group. Design and setting Test-negative design (TND), multicentre case-control study with additional population controls in South Eastern Norway. Participants Adults who underwent SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing between February and December 2020. PCR-positive cases, PCR-negative controls, and additional age-matched population controls. Primary outcome measures The associations between various risk factors based on self-reported questionnaire and SARS-CoV-2 infection comparing PCR positive cases and PCR-negative controls. Using subgroup analysis, the risk factors were then compared with a population control group. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses were performed. Results In total, 400 SARS-CoV-2 PCR-positive cases, 719 PCR-negative controls, and 14,509 population controls were included. Male sex was associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection when PCR-positive cases were compared with PCR-negative controls (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.4 to 2.6). Age, education level, comorbidities (asthma, diabetes, hypertension), an exercise were not associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection when PCR-positive cases were compared with PCR-negative controls. In the subgroup analysis comparing PCR-positive cases with age-matched population controls, asthma was associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.1 to 2.1). Daily or occasional smoking was negatively associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in both analyses (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3 to 0.8 and OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.35, to 0.82, respectively). Conclusions Male sex was a possible risk factor, whereas smoking was negatively associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, when comparing PCR-positive cases and PCR-negative controls. Asthma was associated with the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection when PCR-positive cases were compared with population controls. ARTICLE SUMMARY Strengths and limitations of this study The test-negative design (TND) was an important strength of this study. The design can reduce confounding from healthcare-seeking bias because PCR-controls are likely to have similar healthcare-seeking attitudes as PCR+ cases. This study mostly included non-hospitalised patients, which can improve the generalisability of the findings to the general public. The use of an additional control group from the general public for comparison with the findings from the test-negative controls provides further information on the similarities and differences in risk factors for COVID-19 and other respiratory tract infections. In the subgroup analyses, PCR+ cases and PCR- controls were compared with the population controls to assess the risk factors for those aged 18–55 years. Hence, the results may not be generalisable to patients older than 55 years. PCR test results, rather than symptoms, were used to categorise the participants into cases or controls, and therefore risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection and not COVID-19 disease were assessed.
Authors 14
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Marjut Sarjomaa corresponding
University of Oslo · Telemark Hospital
Affiliation as printed
Department of Community Medicine and Global Health, University of Oslo, Norway
Department of Infection Control, Telemark Hospital Trust, Skien Norway
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Norwegian Institute of Public Health
Affiliation as printed
Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
Oslo Centre for Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Oslo, Norway
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Clinical Microbiology, Telemark Hospital Trust, Skien, Norway
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University of Oslo · Telemark Hospital
Affiliation as printed
Department of Research, Telemark Hospital Trust, Norway
School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Norway
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Sørlandet Hospital Arendal · Sørlandet Sykehus
Affiliation as printed
The Norwegian Advisory Unit on Tick-borne Diseases, Sørlandet Hospital Trust, Arendal
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University of Agder · Sørlandet Hospital Arendal · Sørlandet Sykehus
Affiliation as printed
Department of Health and Sport Science, Institute of Health and Nursing Science, University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway
The Norwegian Advisory Unit on Tick-borne Diseases, Sørlandet Hospital Trust, Arendal
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Affiliation as printed
University of Oslo, Norway
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Affiliation as printed
Department of Medical Microbiology, Sørlandet Hospital Trust, Kristiansand, Norway
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Affiliation as printed
Unilabs Laboratory Medicine, Skien, Norway
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Norwegian University of Science and Technology · St Olav's University Hospital
Affiliation as printed
Department of Medical Microbiology, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Norwegian Institute of Public Health
Affiliation as printed
Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Leiden University · Aarhus University · London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
Affiliation as printed
Department of Clinical Epidemiology, University of Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands
Department of Clinical Medicine-Department of Clinical Epidemiology, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
Affiliation as printed
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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University of Oslo · Telemark Hospital
Affiliation as printed
Department of Community Medicine and Global Health, University of Oslo, Norway
Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Telemark Hospital Trust, Skien, Norway
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